An excellent academic resource for studying stalking Meloy's book provides a thorough analysis of stalking from the top researchers and practitioners in the field. It presents a variety of theoretical conceptualizations on this crime from several different professions (e.g. psychology, criminal justice, private security). This book is comprehensive and well organized. In a field that is often over-run with "pop-psychology" and "true crime" novels, this books provides a truely academic resource for persons who research stalking or work in the threat assessment field. It is a MUST BUY for all professionals concerned with the crime of stalking.

I Know You Really Love Me : A Psychiatrist's Account of Stalking and Obsessive Love ~
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Doreen R. Orion / Mass Market Paperback / Published 1998
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In September 1989, Doreen Orion was just beginning her psychiatric practice when one of her female patients developed an erotomanic obsession with her. Over the next eight years, this patient skulked outside of Orion's house and at her workplace, leaving bizarre messages, watching her, and making her unwelcome presence known in virtually every aspect of her life. In I Know You Really Love Me, Orion recounts her legal and emotional struggles as she tried to take control of the situation.

As a psychiatrist, Orion has fascinating insights into the condition that causes some people to obsess inappropriately over others. She also describes compellingly the feelings of helplessness and fear that stalking causes its victims--but always with the compassion and understanding of someone who works with the mentally ill. Her unique perspective as both a victim and a professional makes I Know You Really Love Me not just a blow-by-blow account of a stalking, but a practical guide to understanding, avoiding, and discouraging stalkers. --Lisa Higgins

Stopping a Stalker : A Cop's Guide to Making the System Work for You -- R. L.
Snow(Editor); Hardcover

Sadly, this book could hardly be more timely, what with reports of stalking making news, especially when celebrities are involved, and all manner of antistalking laws popping up. Snow aims mainly to teach how to avoid and discourage stalkers, and case histories abound. Snow breaks down stalking into more specific kinds of threatening behavior, including "cause," "revenge," "serial," and "electronic" brands of stalking. He even covers the "unintentional and third-party victims of stalking." His writing is controlled, spare yet descriptive, and, most important for true-crime appeal, documented. In the case histories, for the most part, he gives dates, names, and specifies places. For the purpose of a grim guide to life or as background material on current crime trends, it would be hard to beat the facts, clear narratives, and sound advice that Snow provides.

The Stalking of Kristin : A Father Investigates the Murder of His Daughter; George, Jr Lardner
As a local police expert on stalking and stalking issues, such as domestic violence, I was extremely gratified to read George Lardner's book. As I read on, I found myself believing Kristen was my daughter, my girlfriend, or my best friend. I was as devastated as George was when she was killed, and as horrified as he to learn of how little victims are protected in the "real" world. You must read this book and recommend it or pass it on to your friends. Over 30% of women in America, and over 20% of men, will find themselves stalked at some time in their lives. It is good to know that you really must fend for yourself, and not rely on the police or the Courts to protect you. George Lardner's book should be a requirement for any poly-sci, criminal justice major, and for first-year law students. It is packed with statistics about how the system fails victims, and how society is endangered by our failure to imprison vilent criminal offenders.

Stalkers
Studies
Books

Forensic psychologists who have studied stalkers generally divide them into four general categories. Each stalker is different and may show signs from different categories.

1) Simple Obsessional

Thought to be the most common, in this kind of stalking, the stalker generally has a previous relationship with his victim. The relationship could be marriage, a romance, a friendship, a date, a co-worker, an employee, etc. Remember "Fatal Attraction"? Glen Close played a simple obsessional stalker. In "Sleeping With The Enemy", Julia Roberts was married to a simple obsessional stalker. They can be dangerous - don't let the word "simple" fool you!

These stalkers, being the most common, are also the most well studied. They are known to be generally immature, socially incompetent and unable to maintain relationships, jealous, insecure, paranoid, feel helpless and powerless, and have very low self esteem. If your stalker says, "You are my life," you should believe it. He thinks so little of himself that he believes literally that he is nothing without you. Because of this reasoning, he will often go to extreme measures to see to it that he gets you.

2) Love Obsessional

The stalking cases that make the news are the most dramatic and the most bizarre. When most people think of stalking, they think of John Hinkley shooting the President to impress Jodie Foster. John Bardo stalked the actress Rebecca Shaffer and shot her dead in 1989, and as a direct result, California passed stalking laws. The other states followed suit.

Those are examples of love obsessional stalkers. The good news is that they are reported to be only about a fourth as common as simple obsessional cases. The bad news is that the vast majority of these cases are ordinary people and not celebrities at all. That means that, yes, it could happen to you. If you thought you couldn't be stalked by a crazy stranger because you aren't famous, you were wrong.

Love obsessional stalkers tend to be persistent in their pursuit of their victims. These stalkers fantasize about the victim being a romantic partner, and when that fantasy clashes with reality, the stalker often tries harder and harder to get noticed. Increasingly drastic means may ensue. Negative or positive attention may not matter, as long as their victim notices and in noticing, becomes a part of the stalker's life.

3) Erotomania

Related to love obsessional is erotomania. These cases are usually women who actually believe that the victim knows and loves them. David Letterman has a woman who breaks into his house and steals his car, and she insists she is Mrs. Letterman every time she is caught. These stalkers are characterized by mental problems including delusions. They truly believe that their fantasies are true. Less is known about these stalkers than the other types because they are often treated for their other mental problems rather than for the stalking behavior itself.

4) False Victimization Syndrome

In these very frustrating cases, the stalker may believe that he is the victim. Sometimes he even reports his victim to the police as having stalked him.

In these cases, the true stalker is usually the one who initiated contact, although this is not always so. In all cases, the stalker holds the victim in very high regard and will consciously or unconsciously imitate his victim's style, speech, dress, habits, etc. Some stalkers go so far as to buy a house with the same floor plan, trade in his car for a model like the victim's, or even make a career change to the victim's chosen profession. The stalker will rationalize his behavior by saying, "I can do it better". In reality, this kind of stalker suffers from a severe lack of self esteem. He feels very inferior to the victim whom he admires greatly, although he will rarely admit this to be true. These stalkers, believing themselves to be inferior to, or wronged or rejected by the ones they admire most, begin harassing and following the victims, spreading tales, keeping tabs, and in many instances plotting revenge. Very frequently these are same-sex stalkers.

In false victimization syndrome, the stalker is extremely manipulative. Very frequently he convinces himself and others that the victim is the one at fault, when in truth the victim frequently would have had no contact with or knowledge of the stalker if the stalker had not begun a campaign against him. Often the victim is reported to the authorities for defending himself from the stalker. You may hear from this stalker things like, "You are your own stalker" or, "You only know one side of the story." Frequently delusional and always irrational, when presented with the facts, this stalker will rationalize and manipulate everything he can and ignore even a direct question, in order to preserve his fantasy of being the victim. He will initiate conflicts and then twist them in his favor in an attempt to gain positive attention for himself. He wants, in a nutshell, to be like his victim and when he feels that he does not measure up, his motive is to bring his victim down. Sometimes this means merely trying to ruin his victim's reputation by spreading lies and rumors. Other times, this means murder.

The following is a list of article summaries from scientific research about stalkers and their victims. The Sources are in BOLD, and a description of their results and statistics follows each source.

N= Size of their sample (# of participants).

You are encouraged to refer to the original sources for more descriptive data.

Sample: n=100, Clients referred to clinic by clinicians, police and attorneys, and self-referrals from print media articles.

"It is likely we would recruit the more distressed and aware victims, skewing our data to the more severe end of the spectrum." P 12

Clients met criteria of study if, "a perpetrator to be stalking a victim when they repeatedly intruded upon them by following them, keeping them under surveillance or approaching them, and/or make repeated unwanted communications by letter, telephone or electronic mail. Isolated instances of following or making unwanted approaches were not included, however distressing. Those cases included in the study all involved multiple episodes over a minimum of one month, and involved more than one form of intrusive behavior." P 12.

50 item questionnaire: "basic epidemiological data for the victim and, where known, for the stalker; the nature and duration of the harassment; the prior relationship between the victim and the stalker; possible stalker motives; the impact of the stalking on the victim�s health and lifestyle, as well as help sought and its perceived efficacy." P 13

"The data were initially summarized with basic descriptive statistics. Subsequently, Pearson�s chi-square test (and Fischer�s exact test where appropriate) were used to analyze categorical data." P 13

Results:

83 female and 17 male victims

Duration: One month to 20 years, median of 2 years

52 were experiencing on-going stalking

10 cases of female-female stalking, 4 cases of male-male stalking

36% were employed in professions such as medicine, teaching and law

29% were ex-partners

25% first encountered their stalker through a professional relationship, 9% in other work related contexts, 21% were casual social contacts or neighbors, and 16% were strangers.

Stalking Behaviors:

• 78% unwanted telephone contacts (majority at inconvenient times), professionals were more likely than other occupational groups to receive harassing calls;
• 62% received letters;
• 79% were approached directly (home school or workplace),
• 71% were followed and/or under surveillance,
• 36% experienced damage to property, especially cars and outside of homes,
• 50% received unsolicited materials (gifts, dead animals, flowers, photos)
• 58% received direct threats (14 to victim only, 7 to 3^rd party only, and 37 to both)
• 31% physically assaulted
• 7% sexually assaulted
• 3% attempted murder
• 2% abducted
• 26 out of the 34 personal violence victims had been threatened previously
• violence was more likely when their was a previous intimate relationship (p=.007)
• female victims were no more likely to experience physical violence than males

Sources of assistance P 14:

• 78% family and friends
• 69% police
• 38% lawyers
• 44% medical practitioners
• 19% work supervisors
• A few private detectives and churches
• "The victims� appraisal of the helpfulness of these agencies was mixed, but for the majority their desire to help was not matched by their effectiveness." "The police were great but powerless."

Impact on Life: p 14

• 94% reported lifestyle changes
• 82% modified their usual activites
• 73% increased their security: unlisted numbers, PO boxes, new car, new name, security systems, guard dogs, etc�.
• 5% self-defense classes
• 6% weapons
• 70% curtailed social outings
• 53% decreased work or school attendance
• 37% changed workplace, school or career
• 39% relocated between one and five times
• 7% moved between states, and 3% overseas
• 65% considered violence towards the stalker
• 24% seriously considered or attempted suicide
• 75% reported overwhelming feelings of powerlessness
• 83% reported jumpiness, shakes, panic attacks, hypervigilance and or exaggerated startle response
• 74% reported chronic sleep disturbance due to hyperarousal, nightmares or stalker�s calls
• 48% appetite disturbance (45% weight fluctuations)
• 30% persistant nausea
• 27% indigestion problems
• 23% change in bowel habits
• 23% increased alcohol or cigarette consumption
• 55% excessive tiredness
• 47% increase in frequency and severity of headaches
• 55% intrusive recollections and vivid flashbacks, often triggered by ringing phones and knocks on doors
• 38% avoidance and numbing, detachment and estrangement from others
• 37% fulfilled criteria for PTSD
• 18% more almost fulfilled criteria, but did not meet the stressor A criterion, the stressor did not involve actual or threatened physical harm, nor a threat to the PHYSICAL integrity of the victim or significant others
• 49 out of these 55 were female
• Those who had a prior intimate relationship were more likely to have PTSD

Discussion:

• 50% were no longer stalker due to the following believed causes: legal action, change of residence or stalker transferred interest to another victim.
• The findings of high violence rates "contrasts with the findings of Dietz et al (1991) with regard to the impact of threats contained in letters sent to prominent public and media personalities. It is likely we are examining victims plagued by a very different group of individuals from the disordered and disgruntled fans of the famous." P 15.
• "None the less, harassment by following or surveillance emerged in this study as a very strong influence on the development of PTSD symptoms." P 15

Sample:

• Sample I: 294 College Undergraduates at West Virginia University
• Sample II: 299 undergrads at WVU with revised questionnaire
• Spring 1995 Psychology students
• Females n=165, mean age 19.1, males n=129, mean age 19.2
• SII: females n=153 age 19.2, males n=146 age 19.1

Questionnaires:

• SI: 29 behaviors were rated for frequency of occurrence, "Have you ever been stalked, defined as having someone knowingly and repeatedly fooling harassing or threatening you? Yes or No.
• SII: 22 item questionnaire. Asked about stalking behaviors and 15 coping strategies. Rated the coping strategies: 0=never used, 1=tried unsuccessfully, 2=tried with some but not total success, 3=tried but would not recommend, 4= tried and would definitely recommend

Results:

• SI: 26.6% female victims, 14.7% male victims
• SII: 35.2% female victims, 18.4% male victims
• Female Victims SI: 18% stranger, 18% friend, 16% casual date, 47% serious date; Male victims: 17% stranger, 43% friend, 17% casual date, 24% serious date
• SII: Female Victims: 16% stranger, 16% friend, 26% casual date, 40% serious date; Male Victims: 17% stranger, 22% friend, 37% casual date, 24% serious date.

• Top Five female Coping strategies: ignored hung up on phone calls, confronted stalker, changed schedule, carried pepper spray, arranged for personal escort
• Top five male coping strategies: confronted stalker, ignored or hung up on calls, reconciled with stalker, changed schedule, had someone warn the stalker

• Used a Law enforcement experiential paradigm.
• 10 victims pilot tested a 148 item questionnaire, 20 victims tested a revised 46 item questionnaire,
• n=30
• Instrument: Stalking Incident Checklist: Measures the following variables: nature of relationship, content of communication, level of aggression, level of victim risk, motive of stalker and outcome of case.
• Source of sample: 20 Cases reported to Trauma and Violence Office at the University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing, 10 Cases from a Victim Assistance Program in Richmond, Virginia.
• 47% Domestic (7% delusional), 53% Non-Domestic (29% of Non-Domestic were delusional)
• 17% in the total sample were delusional
• Victim Risk Level: 16.7% Low, 40% Medium, 43.3% High
• Motive: 20% Infatuation, 33.3% Possession, 40% Anger/Retaliation, 6.7% Other
• Outcome: 53.3% Legal System, 23.3% Suicide, 13.3% Psychiatric, 10% Not reported

• Content analysis of 10 studies conducted between 1978 and 1995. (87% of the data was collected between 1993-95).
• N=180 (Only two samples with n>30).
• Sample: Stalkers who have been charged with criminal behavior or investigated by law enforcement. (Non random samples of convenience).
• Most were non-comparative studies.
• Between 1987 and 1993, Harmon et al. (1995) "found a nearly threefold increase in stalkers as a percent of referrals to the Forensic Psychiatry Clinic in New York City (.6% to 1.7%).
• 72% Male, 28% female
• Approximate mean age range of stalkers: 35-40, Entire Range 20-66.
• "chronic failures in social or sexual relationships through young adulthood may be a necessary predisposing factor for some obsessional followers." 151
• Majority never married.
• Harmon et. al (1995) found that 46% of subjects had a history of prior similar offending. With an average of four prior arrests. Almost one half of all subjects ignored restraining orders. Ignoring orders was more common with stalkers motivated by affection or love than those motivated by anger or perception of persecution.
• Average intelligence is above that of other criminals (though much data is missing in this category).
• Harmon et al. (1995) reported that 40% were college graduates.
• Increased likelihood of un- or underemployment.
• Zona et al. Found that a major mental illness was present in 63% of their cases.
• Axis I. Mood , schizophrenia and substance abuse disorders are common. Axis II personality disorders are common. (~70-80%)
• Erotomania present in a small number of cases: 10%-30%, but is unlikely to appear in its pure form.
• Zona et al. (1993) divided their 74 subjects into three categories: erotomaniacs, love obsessionals and simple obsessionals (some previous relationship).
• Harmon et al. (1995). 41% telephoned, 27% accosted, 33% sent letters or gifts.
• Duration: Meloy (1992) 1 week to 8 years, mean of 5 years. Zona et al. (1993) contact attempts erotomaniacs mean 19 months, love obsessional 9.7 months, simple obsessional 5.1 months. (The obsessions though lasted for up to 12 years).
• "common psychodynamic across all three groups which may trigger a pursuit is a threat to the narcissistic equilibrium of the obsessional follower." 155 Zona et al. 1993.
• Pure erotomaniacs are most likely to be women in non-forensic samples.
• Homosexual stalking occurs infrequently, "probably less than 1% of the time."
• 65% of victims have had a prior relationship with the stalker according to LA Threat Management statistics from 1995 (Lt. Lane, personal communication, n=200).
• Harmon et al. (1995) 58% prior acquaintances, 21% strangers, 13% prior intimates, 8% unknown.
• Multiple Victims range between 22 and 33% of cases.
• Mean victims ages: Zona, et al. (1993) 41.7 erotomaniac, 34.1 love obsessional, 41.4 simple obsessional. Similar to range of perps, suggesting peer stalking.
• Zona et al. (1993) violence rate of 2.7%, 8% property damage.
• Meloy and Gothard (1995) 25% physical violence.
• Harmon et al. (1995) 21% physical violence.
• Overall homicide rate of 2%.
• Meloy and Gothard (1995) significance value (p=.004) between prior intimacy and violence. Harmon et al. (1995) found a p=.05 significance between physical violence and the affectionate/amorous group of stalkers.
• Table 2. Incidence of Threats and Subsequent Violence by stalkers.

Zona et al. 93 45% threats 25%true 75%false

Meloy/Gothard 60% threats 17%true 83%false

Harmon et al. 46%threats 32%true 68%false

Overall 50% 25% 75%

• Frequency of violence ranges from 3% to 36%.
• 20% of the cases with violence involved third parties.
• "Obsessional followers will often attribute their own internal stimuli to the victim, and vice versa, a marker for borderline personality organization. (Meloy, 1992). 159
• "The psychopathology of obsessional following appears to be, in part, a maladaptive response to social incompetence, social isolation and loneliness. What differentiates these individuals from others, however, appears to be their aggression and pathological narcissism." P 159
• "Any real contact between the victim and the perpetrator is likely to increase the frequency of subsequent approaches. Such contact is an intermittent positive reinforcer, and attempts should not be made by the object of pursuit to reason with such an unreasonable individual." P160

• Uses a case example to explore a therapeutic framework that utilizes short-term crisis intervention to assist a survivor of stalking.
• Categorized stalkers as 1) domestic violence, 2) erotomania/delusional, and/or 3) nuisance.
• Three most common events that will bring a victim in for treatment are: a)escalation in the incidence or severity of the episodes, b) injury being inflicted whether purposeful or accidental; and c) relationship and/or employment disturbance. (Dziegielewski & Roberts, 1995).
• Essential elements of crisis intervention: establishment of a rapport, respect for the survivor, active listening and empathetic responses.
• Treatment: 1) address safety concerns, 2) Explore measures of practice effectiveness, 3)Get the survivor to let the stalker know that the survivor is not interested, 4)Use relaxation training to help the survivor confront the stalker, 5)encourage the survivor to be direct, concrete and to the point as possible when confronting the stalker, 6) Utilize a behavioral rehearsal of the confrontation, 7)encourage survivor to cease all contact with the stalker, 8) focus treatment on victim�s mental health 9) look for possible PTSD symptoms and dissociative reactions to pain, 10) assess potential for suicide
• Principles of Treatment, a)help the client to define and address the problem situation, b) involve action oriented treatment, c) set limited goals, d) provide support to the victim, e) assist with focused problem solving; f)begin to assess and help the victim increase self-image; and g) work with the victim to foster as much independence and responsibility for his/her own actions as possible.
• Evaluation: look at concrete changes in emotion (depressive symptomology, anxious behaviors, and degree of perceived vulnerability) bases on objective instruments.

• LAPD Threat Management Unit was established in July of 1990 to investigate long-term, abnormal patterns of threat and/or harassment.
• They use three profiles of stalkers: 1)erotomaniac (delusional), 2)love obsessional (stranger infatuation), and 3)simple obsessional (some previous relationship).
• Victim Intervention (sufficient resources must be dedicated to this): 1)education, 2)behavioral and 3)therapeutic.
• Education: victim must take primary responsibility for action with assistance by community service providers, stalking may be long-term, victim should develop "sufficient tolerance" for a number of stalking behaviors, and victim should explore safety option.
• Behavior: change phone number or add line, relocation should be considered, if relocation, then preserve anonymity, modify social habits and change routines, inform supervisor at work, consider identity change in extreme circumstances.
• Therapeutic: Have law enforcement develop a therapeutic alliance with the victim to bolster emotional strength, support groups, self-defense class.
• Intervention by law enforcement and victim must be early and aggressive.
• Suspect interventions include detective contacts, restraining orders, detentions, arrests, mental health diversions, criminal convictions, and when possible deportation.
• Interventions should be multiple and instituted simultaneously.
• Restraining orders are only helpful when they are enforced. When they are not enforced they reinforce the sense of immunity on the part of the stalker.
• Arrest and Detention: Stalkers must be made to remain in jail for a period of time, and not released the following day on their own recognizance. Efforts must be made to enhance bail. Spending a few days behind bars has a "sobering effect" on stalkers and allows victims some time to adjust their lives.
• Stalkers should be monitored while in jail to make sure they are not continuing to harass their victims.
• Consider involuntary mental health diversions. The hold is restricted to 72 hours, but may be increased with a probable cause hearing to 14 days. If this occurs, CA law prohibits stalkers from owning a firearm for 5 years.

Research was conducted to explore these options:

Zona, M., Lane, J., & Sharma, K. 1993. "Interventional Outcomes in a Forensic Sample of Obsessional Harassment Subjects," presented at the American Academy of Forensic Sciences 45^th annual Meeting, February, 1993.

• N=102:
• 61 simple obsessional, 31 love obsessional, 8 erotomaniac and 2 false victimization.
• Data was collected from Threat Management Unit cases initiated between January 1, 1991 and June 30, 1992.
• Cases were followed until closure or for at least six months after application of intervention modalities.
• All cases had a documentation of previous patterns of threat and harassment.
• Intervention Modalities:

• Intervention Success:

• Recommend further research last longer than 6 months, because in some cases the stalking apparently started again.

• Sample: Individuals referred for evaluation to the Forensic Psychiatry Clinic between January 1987 and January 1994. Total forensic sample was n=379. The stalking sample, n=48, consisted of individuals who had been charged with Harassment, Aggravated Harassment and/or Menacing.
• The 48 stalkers were referred to the clinic a total of 79 times over a seven year period.
• The classification scheme was developed along two axes: "one relating to the nature of the attachment between the defendant and the object of their attentions, and another relating to the nature, if any of the prior interaction between them." P189
• The first axis was divided between the "affectionate/amorous type" and the "persecutory/angry type." In the former, the stalker initially pursues the victim for amorous reasons. He or she may at a later point become hostile and angry, but the original intent was of a romantic nature. The latter is motivated by a real or imagined "injury" often related to a business or professional relationship.
• The six classes of prior relationships are as follows: personal(prior intimate), professional (business, professor, therapist, etc..), employment (employer or "ee"), media, acquaintance (superficial previous relationship), none (no clear reason for selection of victim), unknown.
• Makes a distinction between "object" and "victim" because there is usually one object and sometimes multiple victims.
• 13% personal, 25% professional, 25%employment, 13%media, 8%acquaintance, 8%none, 8%unknown.
• 63% amorous/affectionate, 31% persecutory/angry, 6% unknown.
• Stalker�s gender: 67% male, 33% female. (Clinic gender: 86% male, 14% female).
• Object of Interest Gender: 35% male, 60% female, 4% both. Victim gender: 25% male, 60%female, 15% both.
• Marital Status: 63% single, 6% married, 15% divorced, 10% separated.
• Incarceration: 67% were released on bail, as compared to 43% of the clinic population.
• Stalker mean age 40, Clinic mean age 31.
• Ethnicity: Stalkers: 67% white, 13% black, 10% hispanic, 6% asian, 4% unknown. Clinic population: 12% white, 51% black, 26% hispanic, .4% asian, 1% other, 9% unknown.
• Stalkers: 69% were college educated and 40% had graduated. Clinic: 6.3% were college educated and 6% had graduated.
• 46% had a history of prior arrests for the same offenses, with a mean of 3.73 arrests each.
• Injunctions for Protection violation charges were filed in 46% of all of the cases in in 60% of the amorous/affectionate cases.
• Rate of physical violence for amorous/affectionate: 23%, as compared to 20% of persecutory/angry.